Nigeria's Multifaceted Security Landscape: Criminality, Insurgencies, and Separatism

Nigeria, a country exceeding the combined area of France and Germany, is currently experiencing multiple security challenges, including mass abductions. Attempts to frame the country's insecurity solely as the persecution of Christians may not fully account for its complex demographic and security landscape. Nigeria comprises over 250 ethnic groups, broadly divided into a predominantly Muslim north and a largely Christian south, with intermingling populations in central regions. The government states that individuals of all faiths have been victims of attacks. The 400,000-strong army and 370,000-officer police force are reportedly operating under strain due to these issues.

Security challenges include criminal gangs in the north-west, an Islamist insurgency in the north-east, land-related clashes in central regions, and separatist unrest in the south-east.

Key Armed Groups and Flashpoints

'Bandits' - Kidnap Gangs

Criminal organizations, referred to locally as "bandits," are largely composed of individuals from the Fulani ethnic group. These groups, which utilize assault rifles that became prevalent in Nigeria and the region following Libya's destabilization in 2011, are primarily motivated by financial gain through kidnapping for ransom. They operate in large numbers on motorcycles, enabling rapid strikes and escapes, a tactic observed in recent school abductions.

These gangs lack centralized leadership, with loyalty typically directed towards individual leaders within specific families or communities. Bounties have been placed on figures such as Ado Aleru and Bello Turji. In 2022, the government officially designated these bandit groups as "terrorists." Aleru is from Yankuzo town in Zamfara state, a known hub for bandit activity. The gangs engage in inter-group conflicts, operate in neighboring states and central regions, target local communities indiscriminately with ransom demands, and impose taxes on residents in some areas. Younger members have been observed using social media platforms like TikTok to display ransom money, firearms, and motorcycles.

Boko Haram - Jihadist Group

Boko Haram, an Islamist militant group, gained international attention in 2014 for kidnapping over 200 schoolgirls from Chibok; approximately 90 of whom remain missing. The group originated as a local Islamist sect in Maiduguri in 2002, founded by Mohammed Yusuf, with the official name Jama'atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati wal-Jihad and the political objective of establishing an Islamic state. Local populations refer to the group as Boko Haram, a Hausa term loosely translating to "Western education is forbidden," reflecting their opposition to Western educational systems.

The killing of Yusuf in police custody in 2009, following clashes between Boko Haram and security forces, initiated the group's full-blown insurgency. Under the leadership of Abubakar Shekau, Boko Haram controlled significant territory in Nigeria's north-east, establishing "emirs" in some areas. Thousands of women and children were captured by the militants, reportedly subjected to sexual slavery, domestic servitude, or utilized as suicide bombers.

Boko Haram later split into rival factions. Following Shekau's death four years ago, the group's overall strength has reportedly diminished, though it continues to conduct attacks on civilians and security forces. Boko Haram has inspired other groups that employ kidnapping for funding, targeting locations such as schools, churches, mosques, and remote villages lacking adequate infrastructure.

Iswap - Boko Haram Splinter Group

Around 2016, several Boko Haram commanders, including Abu Musab al-Barnawi (believed to be the son of Boko Haram founder Mohammed Yusuf), formed the Islamic State in West Africa Province (Iswap). This split occurred due to disagreements with Abubakar Shekau's interpretation of Islamic doctrine regarding the killing of Muslims. While Boko Haram typically targeted markets and mosques with suicide bombers, Iswap generally avoids attacking Muslim civilians, focusing instead on military and government targets.

Iswap is engaged in ongoing conflict with Boko Haram, with recent reports of deadly clashes near Lake Chad. Shekau is reported to have died during a battle with Iswap, reportedly by detonating a suicide vest. Iswap remains active, having reportedly killed Nigerian general Brig Gen Musa Uba in an ambush in Borno state recently. Iswap commander Hussaini Ismaila received a 20-year sentence for attacks in Kano in 2012.

Initially, Iswap was implicated in a June 2022 attack on a Catholic church in Nigeria's south-west that resulted in at least 50 fatalities. However, prosecutors now attribute the attack to a cell linked to Somalia's al-Shabab jihadist group. Five individuals are currently on trial for this incident, with allegations of training in Somalia.

The government, through presidential spokesman Sunday Dare, has attributed two recent school kidnappings in Kebbi and Niger states in Nigeria's north-west to Boko Haram and Iswap. This claim has been disputed by some experts, including conflict analyst Bulama Bukarti, who suggested that these abductions were carried out by bandits, citing the absence of established Boko Haram or Iswap cells in the north-west.

Ansaru - Boko Haram Splinter Group

Ansaru operates outside the north-east, where Boko Haram and Iswap are dominant. The group is believed to have been involved in the 2022 attack on a high-speed train traveling between Abuja and Kaduna, which resulted in at least seven deaths and over 100 abductions for ransom. Its leader, Khalid al-Barnawi, was arrested in 2016 and faces trial for multiple attacks, including the 2011 bombing of the UN building in Abuja. His trial is scheduled for December 2025.

Mahmuda - Suspected Boko Haram Splinter Group

Mahmuda, identified as a suspected breakaway faction of Boko Haram, has established itself in rural areas near Kainji Lake National Park in western Nigeria since approximately 2020. The group is linked to the Islamic State and has reportedly adopted more moderate messaging, proselytizing in Hausa and other local languages to attract recruits. It has conducted targeted killings, often by motorcycle, attacking markets, vigilante groups formed to protect villagers from bandits, and local communities in Kwara state. In April, its fighters killed several vigilantes and attacked a market, resulting in the deaths of Fulani men and others. The group's focus has recently shifted northward to Niger and Kebbi states, regions affected by bandit violence, where the two recent school abductions occurred.

Lakurawa - Jihadist Group

Lakurawa is a relatively new Islamist militant group operating in Sokoto and Kebbi states in Nigeria's north-west, and in neighboring Niger. Authorities report that it maintains connections with jihadist networks in Mali and Niger, with members integrating into border communities through marriage and recruitment of young individuals. The group initially presented itself as a protector against bandits but has progressively enforced strict controls, such as prohibiting music on villagers' phones and administering floggings for violations. Lakurawa was declared a terrorist organization in 2025 and faces accusations of cattle rustling, kidnapping for ransom, hostage-taking, and attacks on government officials.

JNIM - Sahel Jihadist Group

Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin (JNIM), primarily active in Mali and Burkina Faso, may be extending its presence into Nigeria. A confirmed JNIM attack occurred in northern Benin early in 2025, close to the Nigerian border. In October 2025, the group claimed an attack in Kwara, Nigeria, which would mark its first confirmed operation within the country. Kwara state has also experienced recent abductions of over 30 worshippers from a church and increased incursions by bandits. Confirmation of JNIM activities in Nigeria would introduce an additional security challenge in areas where Ansaru, Lakurawa, Mahmuda, and various bandit groups are already active.

Herders vs. Farmers - Resource Conflicts

Central Nigeria, also known as the Middle Belt, has a history of conflict between herders and farmers. This long-running dispute has led to displacement and an increase in small arms, as both groups arm themselves, contributing to a cycle of reprisal attacks. While sometimes characterized as a religious conflict, the core issues involve grazing rights, land access, and water resources. Herders are predominantly Fulani Muslims, while farmers are largely Christians from various ethnic communities, though some are Muslim.

Fulani families traditionally migrate hundreds of kilometers from the extreme north to central Nigeria and beyond twice a year to find grazing land for their cattle. Urbanization has encroached upon these traditional routes, and local populations accuse Fulani herders of allowing cattle to damage crops and displacing residents from their homes and fields. Clashes have been noted in Kaduna, Plateau, Nasarawa, Benue, and Taraba states. Some state governments have implemented anti-open grazing laws and established ranches for herders in attempts to mitigate the violence, but these measures have encountered resistance.

The conflict has also led to the formation of ethnic militias, some of which have engaged in criminal activities, including plundering communities they ostensibly protect. Ethnic Tiv militias in Benue have been accused of mass killings, and some of their leaders have been killed or arrested by security forces.

Ipob - Separatist Group

Separatist activity in Nigeria's south-east originates from demands for Biafran independence, dating back approximately 60 years to a civil war that resulted in up to a million deaths. Despite the suppression of the rebellion, calls for an independent state for the Igbo people persist, as some Igbos express feelings of marginalization by the Nigerian state.

The Indigenous People of Biafra (Ipob), led by Nnamdi Kanu, advocates for secession. Kanu launched Radio Biafra in 2009, broadcasting separatist messages to Nigeria from London. Ipob was designated a terrorist organization in 2017, and three years later, Kanu established an armed wing, the Eastern Security Network (ESN).

ESN and other splinter groups have since been implicated in arson, kidnappings, and the killings of civilians and security personnel across five states in the south-east. ESN has exerted control over towns in Imo and Anambra states, leading to the displacement of thousands of residents. For years, these separatist groups have enforced Monday stay-at-home orders, impacting economic activity.

Earlier this year, Simon Ekpa, leader of the Biafra Republic Government In Exile, a breakaway Ipob faction, was convicted in Finland on charges related to terrorism and other activities in Nigeria's south-east. Last week, Kanu was convicted in Nigeria on terrorism-related charges and received a life sentence. Prior to his judgment, Kanu had written to Donald Trump, urging a US investigation into "killings of Christians and Igbo people," and his group, along with others, has promoted a "Christian genocide" narrative in the United States, according to a BBC investigation of documents filed with the US Justice Department.