The United States launched Operation Just Cause in December 1989, a military invasion of Panama aimed at apprehending de facto leader General Manuel Noriega, who faced drug trafficking and money laundering charges in the U.S. This operation occurred within a broader history of U.S. interventions in Latin America and the Caribbean, influenced by doctrines such as the Monroe Doctrine and evolving geopolitical concerns from Cold War containment to anti-drug operations. The invasion led to Noriega's capture, subsequent legal proceedings in the U.S. and other countries, and has been followed by Panama's establishment of stable democratic governance.
Historical Context of U.S. Interventions
U.S. interventions in Latin America and the Caribbean have historical roots in the 1823 Monroe Doctrine, which aimed to prevent European interference in the region. In the early 20th century, President Theodore Roosevelt expanded upon this, asserting a U.S. right to act unilaterally as a regional enforcer, a policy sometimes referred to as the 'Big Stick' approach.
Following World War II, particularly after the Cuban Revolution, the focus of U.S. policy shifted to containing the perceived spread of communism in the region. Eduardo Gamarra, a professor of politics and international relations at Florida International University, notes that Cold War interventions were largely covert, with more overt actions emerging in the 1980s. Edward Murphy, a professor of history at Michigan State University, explains that a post-WWII understanding developed between the U.S. and some right-wing Latin American governments that communism was a foreign ideology requiring removal from the Americas, a view justified through the Monroe Doctrine. By the mid-1980s, U.S. policy transitioned from a Cold War focus to an emphasis on the 'drug war' in the region, according to Gamarra.
Manuel Noriega: From U.S. Asset to Target
Manuel Noriega, born in poverty in Panama City, received a scholarship to a military academy in Peru, where he reportedly provided intelligence to the CIA regarding potential communists among his peers. After graduating in 1962, he joined the Panama National Guard. By 1966, he attended the U.S. Department of Defense's School of the Americas in the Panama Canal Zone, receiving training in jungle operations, counterintelligence, and infantry, and also completed a psychological operations course at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. Noriega was reportedly on the CIA payroll for nearly three decades, receiving approximately $200,000 annually by the 1980s.
Noriega assumed de facto leadership of Panama after the death of Panamanian leader General Omar Torrijos in 1981, utilizing a series of "puppet presidents." While Torrijos was perceived by the U.S. as "contrary" to its interests, Noriega was initially viewed as "loyal." He collaborated with multiple U.S. agencies, including the Drug Enforcement Administration, the Department of Defense, the CIA, and the White House, supplying intelligence and facilitating U.S. anti-communist operations in Central America. U.S. financial assistance to Panama increased significantly after Noriega gained power, rising 600 percent to an estimated $15 million annually. However, his involvement in drug trafficking, including with Pablo Escobar's cartel, and reports of increasing brutality, led to him being viewed as an "uncontrollable asset" by the U.S. By 1986, evidence of his ties to drug cartels, extrajudicial killings, and the sale of U.S. secrets to Eastern European governments had emerged.
Escalation of Tensions
In February 1988, federal grand juries in Miami and Tampa indicted Noriega on charges of racketeering, drug smuggling, and money laundering. At this time, U.S. President Ronald Reagan offered Noriega a deal to relinquish power and leave Panama in exchange for the dropping of drug charges, which Noriega declined.
Tensions escalated following Noriega's annulment of the 1989 Panamanian general elections, which an opposition party was projected to win. Reports indicated that the opposition candidate and his supporters faced physical assault, and an individual associated with Noriega was subsequently installed as president. In response, then-U.S. President George H.W. Bush dispatched additional troops to U.S. bases in Panama. On December 15, 1989, Noriega declared a state of war between Panama and the United States. In the subsequent days, members of the Panama Defense Forces (PDF) in Panama City reportedly detained and attacked multiple U.S. military personnel.
Operation Just Cause
On December 20, 1989, President George H.W. Bush initiated Operation Just Cause, a military invasion of Panama. President Bush addressed the nation, stating the actions were necessary to safeguard the 35,000 American citizens in Panama due to Noriega's threats and attacks on U.S. personnel, and citing regional security concerns. The operation involved approximately 20,000 to 27,000 U.S. troops, along with air support including stealth fighters and gunships. The primary objective of the operation was the apprehension of General Noriega. Panama's Defense Force was estimated at approximately 3,000 personnel, primarily equipped with machine guns, mortars, and rocket launchers. Military operations concluded within days, although Noriega remained at large immediately after the initial invasion.
Noriega's Capture, Legal Proceedings, and Death
Following the initial invasion, Noriega sought refuge inside the Vatican embassy in Panama City. The U.S. military implemented psychological tactics, known as Operation Nifty Package, to compel his surrender. These tactics included destroying his private jet, sabotaging his gunboat, establishing a perimeter around the embassy with armored vehicles, and continuously broadcasting loud music from artists like The Clash, Van Halen, U2, Guns N' Roses, and The Doors, along with chicken noises, for 24 hours a day.
After 10 days, Noriega surrendered on January 3, 1990, and was subsequently transported to the United States. In 1992, he was convicted in a Miami court on drug charges and sentenced to 40 years in prison. During the trial, the U.S. government confirmed it had paid Noriega $322,000 in cash and gifts during his association with the CIA; his attorney claimed the amount was $11 million. The court deemed details of Noriega's prior relationship and income from the U.S. inadmissible.
Released for good behavior in 2007, Noriega was extradited to France to serve time for money laundering. In 2011, he returned to Panama, where he was incarcerated for murder, corruption, and embezzlement. In a 2015 interview from prison, Noriega, then 81, publicly apologized for his actions. He was diagnosed with a brain tumor in 2017, underwent surgery, slipped into a coma, and subsequently died.
Aftermath and Perspectives
The U.S. invasion resulted in significant destruction in parts of Panama City. Since Noriega's removal, Panama has maintained stable democratic governance, characterized by regular elections and economic growth. Eduardo Gamarra states that the U.S. achieved its clear objective of removing Noriega, and Panama has maintained economic growth. Edward Murphy, however, suggests the invasion's positive outcomes are limited to Noriega's removal. Historians and critics have described the invasion as having a profound impact on the country, leading to unforeseen consequences. In a year prior to the present, as U.S. tensions with Venezuela escalated, some military figures reportedly expressed concerns regarding a potential repeat of an Operation Just Cause scenario.