The recent collapse of a UK espionage case, involving two individuals accused of spying for China, has highlighted discussions surrounding the nature of China's national security activities targeting the UK. Official accounts regarding the case's withdrawal have differed, with the Attorney General citing "out of date" legislation. UK security officials describe a multifaceted approach by China that extends beyond traditional espionage, encompassing political influence, cyber operations, large-scale data collection, economic intelligence gathering, and the implications of economic dependency.
Context of Recent Espionage Case
Charges against Christopher Cash and Christopher Berry, accused of spying for China under the Official Secrets Act, were dropped last month. Both individuals deny wrongdoing. The decision to withdraw the charges prompted political discussion, with prosecutors and officials providing varying explanations, including whether the definition of China as an active national security threat played a role. Lord Hermer, the Attorney General, attributed the case's collapse to "out of date" legislation.
Traditional Espionage Activities
China's intelligence services engage in traditional human espionage, similar to methods associated with the Cold War era. This involves operatives working under diplomatic cover and recruiting individuals to acquire classified information. A witness statement in the Cash and Berry case detailed Chinese intelligence interest in information from policymakers, government staff, and democratic institutions, collected opportunistically.
Such traditional espionage activities are conducted by many countries, including the UK against China. These incidents often lead to public disputes when exposed. However, Sir Ken McCallum, head of MI5, has stated that the scope of Chinese activities should not be limited to conventional spy operations.
Broader National Security Concerns
The national security activities attributed to China extend beyond traditional espionage. Some of these activities are also linked to economic engagement between countries.
Political Influence Operations
Estimates suggest the overall workforce involved in China's security operations, both domestically and internationally, could be as high as half a million. The Chinese state prioritizes the continued rule of the Communist Party, which shapes its intelligence operations. These operations have included efforts to influence political discourse abroad, target dissidents, collect data on a large scale, and ensure domestic economic growth.
In the UK, concerns about Chinese political influence have been articulated by security officials. In January 2022, MI5 issued an "interference alert" regarding Christine Lee, identified as an alleged Chinese agent believed to have influenced Parliament. Ms Lee denied the allegations and subsequently initiated unsuccessful legal action against MI5, stating the alert had a "political purpose." MI5 has also reported efforts by Beijing to cultivate local politicians early in their careers, with the aim of positioning them for more senior roles, indicating a long-term strategy for building influence. The objective here is to shape political debate by having individuals in influential positions adopt pro-China viewpoints.
Transnational Repression
UK security officials have expressed concern regarding China's practice of monitoring dissidents, a method referred to as transnational repression. Historically, this has focused on groups such as Tibetan campaigners. The arrival of pro-democracy activists from Hong Kong in the UK, following actions by Beijing, has heightened these concerns. MI5 has reported that Hong Kong police have issued bounties for over a dozen pro-democracy activists in the UK, alongside increased reports of harassment and surveillance.
The Chinese embassy in London has consistently rejected accusations of espionage, describing them as attempts to "smear" China. They have stated that "China never interferes in other countries' internal affairs and always acts in an open and aboveboard manner." A recent embassy statement labeled the UK's "China spy-case" as "entirely fabricated and self-staged," and condemned it. The statement added that "China's development is an opportunity for the world, not a threat to any country," and expressed opposition to "smear China by peddling unfounded allegations of 'spying activities, or concocting the so-called 'China threat'."
Cyber Espionage and Data Collection
China has been linked to large-scale cyber operations, some of which involve intelligence gathering. Last year, Beijing was accused of attempting to hack into the emails of Members of Parliament. Rishi Sunak, then Prime Minister, described China as an "economic threat to our security and an epoch-defining challenge," without formally labeling Beijing as a "threat."
In August, the UK confirmed it had been affected by a sophisticated espionage campaign, codenamed Salt Typhoon, which compromised telecoms companies globally. The UK's National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC), an arm of GCHQ, stated that "The data stolen through this activity can ultimately provide the Chinese intelligence services the capability to identify and track targets' communications and movements worldwide." The US had reported on this activity months prior, with reports indicating that communications of senior politicians were targeted.
Plans for a new Chinese Embassy in London have raised concerns about potential espionage via tapping underground data cables. However, some security officials suggest these physical threats are less significant given Beijing's proven capability for remote cyber data collection.
Ciaran Martin, a former head of the NCSC, stated that "China has been trying to collect population level data on British people." This includes bulk data sets containing financial, personal, and health information. This data may be used for purposes such as training artificial intelligence, understanding countries, influencing opinion, or identifying vulnerabilities. Martin noted that this activity differs from conventional government and political spying. Some of this data is stolen, while some is suspected to be acquired through Chinese companies operating in Western markets.
Economic Espionage and Intellectual Property
Balancing the risks and benefits of China's economic power is a challenge for national security officials. Economic growth is a priority for the Chinese state and its intelligence services. China has actively pursued economic, political, and diplomatic information for decades, a practice described as more extensive than that of Western countries. This includes business secrets, new product designs, and negotiating positions.
Sensitive information not classified as state secrets, such as high-tech university research with military and civilian applications, is also targeted. MI5 reports ongoing "attempts to lure UK academic experts" via platforms like LinkedIn to acquire technology. Andrew Badger, a former US intelligence official, stated that the leakage of intellectual property and process knowledge can impact industries, jobs, capital, and geopolitical leverage, underscoring the importance of protecting secrets for economic power.
Economic Dependency and Critical Infrastructure
A significant risk involves the UK's and other Western states' reliance on China in critical fields, including electric vehicles and minerals used in manufacturing. This was a central concern in the debate regarding Chinese telecoms company Huawei's involvement in the UK's 5G phone infrastructure. While Huawei's equipment was often more cost-effective and seen as technologically advanced, the debate focused on the dependency created by relying on another country for critical technology, which could potentially enable influence or coercion.
Ultimately, technology from Huawei was excluded from the UK's 5G network, despite the company's consistent denial of security risks. However, other Chinese companies have expanded globally. Discussions persist regarding potential dependencies created by China's involvement in areas such as new nuclear reactors, green technology, or the use of Chinese-originated social media platforms for news and information. These issues highlight the tension between national security concerns and economic growth objectives.
China is the world's second-largest economy, an important export market, and a source of investment. Any broad restrictions on Chinese technology or companies would conflict with efforts to secure economic benefits. The extent of market openness to Chinese entities remains a subject of ongoing discussion.
Geopolitical Context
The United States has adopted a stricter stance in many areas where economic and national security intersect, and has encouraged the UK to align with its position. This places the UK in a position of navigating pressures from both Beijing and Washington, while attempting to manage threats and maintain productive international relationships. The complexities extend beyond traditional espionage, necessitating a clear and consistent China strategy.